Central Administration and the Ministers

The central government of the Mughals, after it was well organized and evolved by Akbar, consisted of five departments, each presided over by a minister (this number rose to eight during Aurangzeb’s rule). The ministers at the time of Akbar were: (1) Vakil (Prime Minister/Chancellor) (2) Diwan or Wazir (Finance Minister) (3) Mir Bakhshi (Pay-Master General), (4) Sadr-us-Sudur (Head of the ecclesiastical department) and (5) Mir Saman (Head of Imperial Households). The ministers did not constitute a council but rather were invited individually to discuss issues within their respective departments. The Mughal ministers did not constitute a cabinet but were secretaries in charge of specific departments.^[16] All Mughal emperors met their highest ministers and a few select high officials in the ‘Hall of Private Audiences’ known as Diwan-i-Khas in Agra fort and Red fort at Delhi where state matters of a confidential nature were discussed. Here, farmans were drafted on emperor orders in addition to the answers to the most important dispatches relating to the administration. The important duties Mughal ministers were:

1. Vakil:^[17] The Prime Minister under the early Mughal emperors bore the title of Vakil. Sometime he was called Vakil-i-Mulaq. Before the reign of Akbar, he was the de facto head of all the departments of the central government and had the power to hire and fire other ministers, who were looked down as his subordinates. Akbar found the office of Vakil a restrain for the monarch for several years Akbar did not even fill the post of Vakil, and he acted as his own prime minister. When the office was revived under Shah Jahan, the Vakil was not entrusted with any department. The position has become largely ornamental, with the only real responsibilities being those of an adviser to the emperor or vicegerent when he was sick or away from the capital.
2. Diwan or Wazir:^[18] The highest officer next to the emperor was called Diwan or Wazir. After the decline in the authority and prestige of the Vakil, Diwan, in course of time, become the most important minister in Mughal’s central government. During the reign of Shah Jahan the Diwan became the grand Wazir of prime minister. Wazir was the head of the revenue department, but it was in his capacity of Diwan. All Diwans, however, were not Wazirs, as we read of many Hindu Diwans in Mughal period who were not given the high title of Wazir. The Hindu Todar Mal was the Mushriff-i-Diwan (Finance Minister) of Mughal Empire under Akbar. Originally, the wazir was the highest officer of the finance department, and in the natural course of events control over the other departments of the state gradually passed into his hands. As head of the financial department, he formulates land revenue settlement, fixed rates of other kind of revenue, and monitored and controlled disbursements. Almost all official records were sent to his office for the inspection. He examined abstracts of all significant transactions and payments. He also required appointing provincial Diwans and to guide and control them. A Mughal Empire was military state; he was also expected to command an army and led an expedition. However, emperor wouldn't let him lead military operations for a long time far from the imperial camp.
3. Mir Bakhshi:^[19] Mir Bakhshi was second only to the imperial Diwan in importance, and his position was identical to the Diwan-i-Ariz during the Sultanate period. He was basically the army minister and not the chief commander of the Mughal army. In Mughal Empire, emperor himself directed strategies and assigned commanders for specific campaign. Thus, the duty of Mir Bakhshi was to record the names, ranks and salaries of the mansabdars in a register. His office was entrusted with paying the salaries of all state officers. All orders of the appointment to mansabs of all ranks were passed through his office. As the head of the military department, Mir Bakhshi’s duty was to select soldiers for service in the royal army as well as the troops and horses of the manasabdars. Among his most important duties was the appointment of guards to keep watch on the royal palace. Mir Bakhshi was also required to post news-writers and spies in different provinces and to receive their reports and present them before the king.
4. Sadr-us-Sudur:^[20] He had three major responsibilities as a minister, namely, he had to serve as the emperor's religious advisor, he had to distribute the royal charity, and he had to be the chief justice of the empire. During the early days of Akbar’s rule, the chief Sadr enjoyed great power and prestige in all the three capacities. He had the responsibility of enforcing sharia (Islamic law) and settling disputes over its interpretation as the highest religious leader. It was his responsibility to ensure that the emperor and his government remained true to the Quran's teachings and protected the dignity of Islam. In his capacity as the chief qazi, the sadr was the second highest judicial authority, next only to the emperor, who held court and decided cases, usually the appeals from the chief qazi’s court. In this capacity the Chief Sadr recommended candidates for appointment to the posts of provincial, district and city qazis.
5. Mir-i-Saman:^[21] Also called Khan Saman, he was in-charge of the royal household called karkhanas. The karkhanas or the buyutat, as the department was called, included factories and stores maintained by the central government for purposes of state. It dealt with every article, from swords and spear, from pearls and precious stones to guns and heavy artillery. It maintained horses and elephants for the army, pack animal for baggage, and other animals for the royal hunt. Mir-i-Saman as head of this department dealt directly with the emperor and other ministers and was the custodian of all government properties. He was assisted in the management of the karkhanas by the officer diwan-i-buyutat, who was almost independent of him in financial matters.

Thus, despite of the Mughal emperor keeping all the strings of the government in his own hands, for the sake of administrative convenience there were the many departments headed by ministers and high officials. The main departments of the Mughal viz. military, revenue, royal household, justice and religion were further elaborated in sub-departments at the time of Aurangzeb under specific officers for the proper administration of the empire. The chief departments of the Mughal administration were (from Akbar to Aurangzeb): ^[22]

• The Exchequer and Revenue (under the High Diwan)
• The Imperial Household (under the Khan-i-Saman)
• The Military Pay and Accounts Office (under the Mir Bakshi)
• Canon Law, both Civil and Criminal (under the Chief Qazi)
• Religious Endowments and Charity (under the Chief Sadr)
• Censorship of Public Morals (under the Muhtasib)
• The Artillery (under the Mir Atish or Darogha-i-topkhana)
• Intelligence and Posts (under the Darogha of Dak-chauki)

The administrative machinery about news and information was elaborately designed. The agency by which the central government learnt the news of the empire consisted of – Waqianavis (News reports), Sawanih Nigar (events, accidents, and happenings writer), Khufia Navis (Secret letter writers), and Harkarahs (spies and special couriers). The first was the regular reporter posted with the army, in the provinces and towns; the latter were appointed to make sure that Waqianavis sent correct news. The news-letters were sent to the darogha-dak-chauki, i.e. Superintendents of Posts and Intelligence, who handed them unopened to the Wazir to be placed before the Emperor.

Khufia Navis were the most secret class of officers posted to the provinces. These four classes of public intelligences acted under the orders of this Darogha who was their superior. Sometimes when irritated governor publicly abuse or beat the local news writer for a reporting against him, then Darogha defends his subordinate and punish the governor. The arrangement was that wakai should be sent once a week, sawanih twice, and the akhbar (newspaper) of harkarahs once a month and the dispatches in cylinders (nalo) from the nazim and the diwan twice every month, in addition to urgent matters which are to be reported immediately. ^[23]

Provincial, District and Village Administration

For purposes of efficient administration the empire was divided into a number of provinces, called subah at each of which was stationed a Subedar (governor) who was assisted by a revenue officer, called Diwan. Each province was sub-divided into Sarkdars (districts) each of which was placed in charge of a local governor called Faujdar. Each Sarkar was further sub-divided into Parganas (sub-district) which themselves were divided into villages. The hereditary officers in charge of Pargana were called Qanungo (keeper of revenue records), Chaudhuri (in charge of revenue collection) and Qazi. The village which was the smallest unit of administration kept under the charge of Muqaddam.^[24]

The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level; each subah had its own diwan, bakhshi, and sadr that reported directly to the central government rather than to the provincial head.^[25]

Subahdar: During the time of Akbar, the head of the province was called Sipah-salar but under his successors it was changed into subahdar who was officially called the nazim or regulator of the province. His primary responsibilities included upholding law and order, facilitating the efficient collection of taxes, and carrying out decrees from the monarch and regulations sent to him. In addition to that, he was responsible for the administration of criminal justice. He was told to maintain his forces, stay cautious, support the poor and pious, and improve farming. Another essential work assigned to him was the collection of the tribute from vassal kingdoms close to his jurisdiction. ^[26]

Provincial Diwan: The provincial diwan was selected by the imperial Diwan and acted directly under his orders and in constant correspondence with him. He was urged by the High Diwan to increase the cultivation and select honest men for the post of amin (revenue assessor). He was to report to the central Diwan twice every month with a statement of the cash balance of the subah. The provincial diwan appointed two officers, kroris and tahsildars working in a capacity of collector who would induce the cultivators to pay the government dues of their own accord without any coercion. ^[27]

Provincial Bakshi and Sadr: He was another vital official in the province who carried out the duty of military official assigned to him by Mir Bakshi.^[28] Sadr manages the judicial affairs of the province.

Faujdar: In the maintenance of law and order and the discharge of executive functions in general, the subedar’s assistants were the three officials namely faujdars, nazaim and thanadar. (The army was positioned at thana for maintaining law and order in the disturbed areas and around the cities, the head of a thana was the Thanadar whose selection was recommended by Subadar and Diwan. He was to report to Faujdar of that area.) Officers like these were given responsibility of administering districts within a province and were considered important because they provide safety to zamindars, the significant source of state revenue. Faujdar were direct representative of the central government at the level of local administration called faujdari.^[29]

Kotwal: He was the most important of the local officers. He was a man of all work, from the inspection of prisoners to the observance of the Ilahi era and the various festivals by the people; from the maintenance of the safety of the roads to the regulation of the markets; from the inspection of weights and measures to the prevention of vice, and even wasteful extravagance by private individuals. He was also charged to keep census of the houses and inhabitants in his jurisdiction, to keep an eye over visitors and foreigners coming in and going out, to maintain a body of informers to keep in touch with the daily and hourly happenings. No wonder, therefore, Abul Fazl for the post of kotwal suggested, “The appropriate person for this office should be vigorous, experienced, active, deliberate, patient, astute, and humane.” ^[30]

Amalguzar: He served as the finance officer of the district (sarkar) and reports to the diwan of the province. He safeguarded agriculture, collected revenue and other taxes, and punished those who break the law. He also guarded the treasury.

At the pargana (group of villages) level, Shiqdar (military officer who maintained peace and order and helped in the revenue collection), Amil (finance officer), Fotadar (treasurer), Qanungo (head of village Patwaris who keep all details concerning agriculture and revenue collection) and Karkuns (clerks who helped different officers in preparing records of administration) were important officers.^[31]

Mansabdari System

The Mansabdar was a military organisation established by Akbar as part of the Mughal Empire's administrative system. Mansab is an Arabic term that means rank or status. The system defined the rank and status of government officials and military generals. Every official of the Mughal Empire, both civil and military, received a mansab, which determined their salaries and allowances. It was a system in which nobles were granted the privilege of holding a jagir or revenue assignment, for services they provide to state, with the monarch having direct control over these nobles. In the mansabdari system, the officials holding a mansab were expected to provide soldiers to the state’s military service

From the fortieth year of his reign (1594-95), Akbar added the grades of zat and sawar in the Mansabdari system. Zat indicated the personal rank of the Mansabdar depending on the number of soldiers under him, whereas the Sawar indicated the number of cavalrymen Mansabdar was required to maintain. As Mughal Empire was a military state, mansabdari system ensure for them the organisation of bureaucracy that take military responsibility as well by maintaining contingent of army (zat & sawar). ^[32]

Revenue & Taxation

The Mughul emperors exploited several sources of revenue. They levied direct taxes on income and persons, profession and property. They made money by extensive commercial undertakings of various kinds. They raised substantial sums by indirect taxes such as customs duties, transit dues, octroi, sales tax, and the excise duty on manufactures. Administration of justice brought in a small sum in fines and judicial fees. The loot of the war and plunder along with annual tribute from feudatory chiefs also significantly contributed to the Mughal revenue.^[33] Under Mughal emperors especially Aurangzeb, certain burdens were shouldered by non-Muslims which can be best described as taxes on religion.

However, land revenue forms the main source of income of the State. Akbar while consolidating the Mughal Empire took utmost interest in establishing a sound revenue administration. He found many system of land revenue in practices which create confusion when it comes to dividing the standing crop between the cultivator and the State. Thus, he made several experiments in this field and devised many systems of land revenues for his empire. With the help of Todar Mal who was his Finance Minister (Mushriff-i-Diwan), he introduced a new system in 1580 called the Dahsala or Zabti. This system is called Todar Mal's bandobast. In this system the average produce of crops as well as the average prices prevailing over the last ten years was calculated to fix state share of revenue from the land. However, the most common system of assessing land revenue was called Batai or Ghalla-Bakhshi. The produce was divided in fixed proportion between the state and peasants in this system. The peasants were allowed to choose between Dahsala and Batai under certain conditions. Akbar also restored Nasaq and Kankut systems in which rough estimate of the amount payable by the peasants was made based on his past dues. Aurangzeb greatly favoured Nasaq system.^[34] In general, the peasants and cultivators are recorded to have been under immense pressures of taxes under Mughals. The French traveller, Francois Bernier, noted that “a considerable portion of the good land remains untilled from the want of peasants,” many of whom “perish in consequence of the bad treatment they receive from the Governors,” or “abandon the country.” ^[35]

Administration of Justice

The duties of a Muslim king in an Islamic state require him to rule in accordance with the Quranic law and to enforce Sharia in his kingdom. Islamic law divides the subjects under a Muslim king into two sections, believers and non-believers, and imposes a duty upon the king to see that believers live as true Muslims and non-believers remain in the position allotted to them as zimmis, a position which denies them equal status with Muslim subjects, but guarantees security of life and property and the continuance of their religion and religious practices under certain defined conditions. Akbar, however, tried to check the power of Ulema who interprets Islamic law, but he made no fundamental change in the judicial system. He also appointed Hindu judges to decide the cases to which the Hindus were parties, but on the whole, Islamic judicial system continued to dominate throughout the Mughul period, even in the reign of Akbar.^[36]

The Mughul judicial system was arguably a weak branch of administration. It did not conceive of a graded hierarchy of courts controlled by a department of the central government. It did not have one law code for all the people, and no supreme court of judicature for the interpretation of the law. The Mughuls had three separate judicial agencies all working at the same time and independent of each other. There were the courts of religious law under the qazis, the courts of common law under governors and other local authorities, and political courts under the emperor or his agents. The emperor throughout the period was the fountainhead of justice and decided cases personally in the open court on Wednesdays which were reserved for this business. He set up a separate justice department called Mahakuma-i-Adalat to see the proper administration of justice within his empire. The chief qazi and other judges and theologians attended the royal court. But very few people could afford to approach the royal court and the emperor could spare very little time for hearing cases. ^[37]

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