Public Administration during the Sur Dynasty

Sher Shah Suri Early Administrative Training

Sher Shah Suri acted as his father’s deputy in the parganas of Sasaram and Khavasspur Tanda. Even in his early days he administered justice to all, punished the unruly landlords and the oppressive officials, and protected the ryots from all kinds of oppression and tyranny, as he realized “that the stability of every administration depended on justice, and that it should be his greatest care not to violate it, either by oppressing the weak or by permitting the strong to infringe the laws with impunity.” ^[3] On assuming charge of his district he summoned the Mukaddaman (headmen) and the Muzarian (cultivators), as also the Patwaris (accountants) to his presence and addressed them with an earnestness which carried conviction. He explained his policy in a simple but firm language. He said that he had set his heart on the prosperity of the estate and that in his success their own welfare was as much concerned as his reputation. He specially warned the officials against their corrupt and oppressive treatment of the poor cultivators who he said were the real supporters of all administration.^[4]

Sher Shah’s greatest achievement as a manager of his father’s estate in Sasaram was to define and equalise land revenue. He assessed the revenue on the measured area of the land which was based on a careful calculation of the produce. According to Sher Shah, a ruler should be flexible with farmers during the measurement and assessment period, when prices are determined based on an average produce and all reasonable expenses are taken into account, but he should be strict when it comes to collecting taxes.^[5] Considering the time when peasants were heavily taxed and their life and property were without protection, Sher Shah’s measures were indeed was remarkable. His motives for the welfare of the peasantry were best manifested when he clearly said to his father, “The cultivators are the source of prosperity. I have encouraged them and sent them away and shall always watch over their condition that no man may oppress and injure them, for if a ruler cannot protect humble peasantry from the lawless, it is tyranny to exact revenue from them.”^[6]

In a very short time the parganas of Sasaram and Khavasspur Tanda became extremely prosperous and the soldiers and the peasants were alike contented. His personal consideration for the peasants and astute taxation changes enhanced agriculture and gave them satisfaction. Through his tireless work, he brought peace, wealth, and happiness to his father's jagir. ^[7]

Administrative Divisions and their Officials

On becoming the emperor in 1540, Sher Shah Suri did not make many changes in the administrative divisions prevailing since the Delhi Sultanat period. A number of villages ‘comprised a Pargana was kept under the charge of the Shiqdar, who looked after the law and order and general administration. Munsif or Amil were assigned to look after the collection of land revenue. Accounts were maintained both in Persian and the local languages (Hindavi) and maintained by an official known as Qanungo, while Fotadar was in charge of the pargana treasury. As Shiqdar had to handle considerable revenue he was assisted by a clerk known as Karkun. In every village there was a Mugaddam and a Patwari. The former collected the revenues from the people living within his jurisdiction, and handed it over to the State officials. For this service he got a given percentage of the revenue allowed to him by the government. The Patwari kept a record of the cultivators and their holdings. ^[8]

Above the pargana was the Shiq or Sarkar under the charge of the Shiqdar-i-Shaqdaran or Faujdar and a Munsif-i-Munsifan. It seems that only the designations of these officers were new since both pargana and sarkar were units of administration in the earlier period also. A number of sarkars were sometimes grouped into provinces, and it seems that the provincial governors were all-powerful in some areas. However, in areas such as Bengal, real power remained in the hands of tribal chiefs and the governor exercised only a loose control over them.^[9] Whereas, in Ajmer, Malwa and the Punjab were governed by the system of were military governorships. However, later Sher Shah Suri abolished the post of the military governor, and divided the whole province into several with civilian Viceroy called Amin-i-Bangala at the top for smoothly running the administration. ^[10]

Central Administration

Sher Shah seems to have kept the central system of government that had been built up during the Sultanate. The ministers occupied the position of secretaries rather than ministers, as they had no power of initiative or final determination of any policy or transacting matters of importance without Sultan’s order. Among the ministers, mention may be made of:^[11]

Diwan-i-Wijarat (Finance Department): This department was in charge of the Wazir and primarily dealt with finance
Diwan-i-Arz (Military Department): This department was under the Ariz-i-Mumalik who was in charge of recruitment and organization of the army as well as their payment.
Diwan-i-Insha (Royal Secretariat): This department dealing with government correspondence, was in charge of Dabir-i-Khas. Mention may also be made of the Barid-i-Mumalik who was the head of the intelligence department.
Diwan-i-Rasalat (Department for Religious Affairs): This department dealt with religious matters, pious foundations, stipends to deserving scholars and men of piety. This office was presided over by the Sadr-us-Sudur, who generally was also the Qazi-i-mumalik; in the latter capacity he controlled the department of justice.

Rupia, Postal Service and Public Works

Sher Shah introduced a system of tri-metalism which came to characterise Mughal coinage which was called Rupia. He introduced copper coins too. Shah paid a lot of attention to communications in his kingdom and introduced the revolutionary regular postal services. Police were competently restructured and crime was less during his regime.

He also constructed four important roads: Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon to Peshawar; road from Agra to Multan via Burhanpur and Delhi; road from Multan to Lahore; and road from Mandu to Agra. These roads were lined with trees, wells and rest houses (Sarais). Overall, he Suri constructed nearly 1700 sarais (resting place). Each sarai also featured a well and a mosque, as well as separate living quarters for Hindus and Muslims. Dak Chaukis (the Post Office) was also located in Sarais. Because of their importance, these sarais were dubbed "veritable arteries of the empire." At each sarai, there were always two horses so that the people who brought the news could switch to new horses quickly to keep up the pace.

For free movement goods, Sher Shah also built a network of roads in his capital that linked important parts of his kingdom.^[12] He repaired broken roads and open new roadways so that his capital Agra stood connected with Bengal on the one side and Peshawar on another. Sher Shah is also attributed with the construction of the Grand Trunk Road or Shahrab-i-Azim.^[13] The official called Chowkidars were assigned to take care of saries. Hence, trade and commerce benefited greatly from the public works of Sher Shah Suri.^[14]

Revenue System

The reform which Sher Shah Suri made in the revenue system of the country is his most striking contribution as an able administrator. He was well suited to do so since as the manager of his father's jagir in Bihar, he acquired sufficient experience in survey, assessment and settlement of land revenue. He also made many reforms in the existing revenue structure of the time that greatly benefited the peasants of Sasaram. His experiments with revenue systems continued even after becoming the emperor and he came up with a novel system of land revenue. ^[15]

Due consideration was given in cases of damage to crops caused by movement of troops and to paucity of yield, nature’s vagaries like drought, etc. A Kabuliyat (deed of agreement) containing the tenant’s right in the land and his liabilities was taken from him and the government issued a patta (title-deed) to him stating similar terms and conditions. Sher Shah tried to do away with the authority of the middlemen and establish a direct relation with the tenants who were encouraged to pay their dues direct to the government treasury.^[16]

Judicial System

Sher Shah gave great emphasis on justice. He was renowned for administering fair justice and having the ability to carefully consider each case that came before him. He used to say, “Justice is the most excellent of religious rites, and it is approved alike by the king of infidels and of the faithful”. He spared no oppressors, whether they were high-ranking nobles, members of his own tribe, or close relatives.^[17] Contemporary observer Abbas Khan Sarwani also confirm the fair justice of Sher Shah justice, when he remarked the following in Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi, “He always ascertained the exact truth regarding the oppressed, and the suitors for justice; and he never favoured the oppressors, although they might be his near relations, his dear sons, his renowned nobles, or of his own tribe; and he never showed any delay or lenity in punishing oppressors.” ^[18]

Under Sher Shah, the royal court appears to have heard cases of every description. Most of the cases were straightforward demands for justice from the highest court when the complaint had failed elsewhere. Qazis were appointed throughout the kingdom to dispense justice. Panchayats and caste bodies must have continued to provide civil law to the Hindus, while zamindars and shiqdars were also involved in providing criminal justice.^[19]

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