Kingship

In the early medieval India, king’s policy and decisions on administrative matters have to be centred on the concept of ‘dhrama’. We have numerous evidences suggesting that Chalukyan monarchy being influenced by the Smrits and other ancient texts on polity followed the ‘rajyadharma’. In one of the copper plate of Pulakeshin I (c.540 – c.567), he is described as conversant with the law of Manu and the Puranas and the epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata equal to Brihaspati (preceptor of God) in philosophy. Referring to Pulakeshin I performance of sacrifices, the same record says, that he had become favourite of the World on account of his meritorious qualities. ^[3]

In Manasollasa, a Sanskrit text on polity, governance, ethics, economics etc. authored by Kalyani Chalukya king Someshvara III (1126 CE – 1138 CE), we get an analysis of the good qualities which the king required to possess. Someshvara III speaks of certain negative behaviour like, anger and self-praise, unlawful sex relations, injury to others, abstention from theft etc. from which a good ruler should abstain himself. He attributes to the ruler a list of nearly forty qualities, five out of which viz., truthfulness, heroism, forbearance, charity and appreciation of merit is worthy of mentioning here. Other virtues are certain Internal (antaranga) and external (bahiranga) qualities. In antaranga, king is supposed to have great energy, mindful of the previous events, should be generous, of strong memory, possessed of a highly disciplined mind, endowed with an even temper (in good or bad luck), born of noble family, truthful, pure (in body and mind), prompt in action, not mean minded, not harsh in words or acts, observant of the rules of dharma, free from vices, brave, talented, clever in concealing secrets, guarding the weak points of his state, well-taught as regards logic, the science of government, the science of wealth, and three Vedas. He should he forbearing towards learned men, straight forward towards his friends, wrathful towards his enemies and should be like a father towards his servants and subjects. External qualities (bahiranga) refer to the capability and shrewdness of the king in selecting ministers, purohita and other priests, in making gifts to worthy Brahmana, in protecting his subjects and the like.^[4]

According to political thinkers of ancient India, the State consists of seven prakrtis or constituent elements: Svami (King), Amatya (Ministry), Desa or Rashtra (territory), Durga (Fort), Kosa (Treasury), Bala or Danda (Army) and Mitra (ally).^[5] The Svami or the king is the first and foremost among them, but it cannot exist in the absence of the six other constituent elements. The king received support from all these six constituents, but was always above them in his absolute power. ^[6]

All these elements were present in the Badami Chalukya polity.^[7] The saptangas or the seven constituent elements, and the eighteen tirthas or ministers referred to in the inscriptions were also essential part of Kalyani Chalukyas.^[8] Thus, in Chalukyan kingship, despite of the king the pivot of administration, who exercised all authority of government, cannot be an autocrat. He was bound to respect several customs, traditions and laws as prescribed by the ancient lawgivers. His authority was controlled and guided by several restraints especially by the chief priest and Council of Ministers. ^[9]

The Chalukyan monarchy was hereditary and also gave birth to the system of hereditary aristocracy. This was the characteristic feature of the Chalukyan administration. The succession was governed by the law of primogeniture. The eldest son succeeded his father after a requisite training in Shastras. However, the instance that Badami Chalukyan king Kirttivarman I was succeeded by his brother Mangalesa, despite the presence of the former’s sons, Pulakesin II the rightful heirs indicates that law of primogeniture was not always followed in Chalukyan genealogy. Perhaps, Pulakesin II was a minor at the time of his father’s death; and Mangalesa became the ruler his guardian. When Pulakesin II attained majority, Mangalesa refused to make room for him, and probably tried to ensure a line of succession for his own progeny. Pulakeshin II (609–642) with public opinion on his side overthrew him after a civil war. ^[10]

Another incidence in Badami Chalukyan where heirship to throne was not offered to eldest son comes when Pulakeshin II in a war with Pallavas was killed. Although his elder son Adityavarman (c. 643-645) who was weak ruler ascended the throne but after a short period, younger son of Pulakeshin II, Vikramaditya I (655–680) was made king when he defeated the Pallavas and restored the Chalukya power.^[11] It is worth here mentioning that between Adityavarman and Vikramaditya I, a lady of the royal house named Vijaya Bhatarika who was the wife of Chandraditya, another son of Pulakesin II ruled Badami Chalukyas kingdom as a regent for her minor son. ^[12]

Because of such confusion on the question of rightful accession, there grew the convention in Chalukyan to nominate the Yuvaraja, i.e., the heir-apparent. Considerations of ability to rule efficiently obliged them to train the heir- apparent in the art of administration by sharing executive and military functions with the king. Thus, it became the duty of the reigning sovereign to train his successor, which also provided him with an opportunity to judge the prince’s ability to rule before appointing him Yuvaraja.^[13] A similar note is struck in Manasollasa where Kalyani Chalukya king Someshwar II says that the prince must be introduced to learning and given instruction in the Vedas and the use of different types of weapons. He must be taught riding elephants, horses and chariots. Someshvara III emphasises the interest that the king must evince in the training of the prince by stating that with the help of experts the king must take the exams (parikshet tajnaihsaha mahipati) of the princes in subjects such as Sruti (Vedas), Tarka (logic), dharma (ancient lore), kavya (poetry), Vyakarna (grammar), Dhanurveda (archery), Svara Sastra (music) and other arts. The prince must be tested in his ability to wield the bow with considerable agility and accuracy. Physical fitness like strength of arms, valorous, looks and stability of mind should also be observed by the king with the help of experts. Further, Someshvara III said that the king should hope that princes must turn out superior to him.^[14]

In Western Chalukya (Kalyani Chalukya) also mostly rule of primogeniture was observed, but we have reference to younger son ascending the throne. 11th century Kashmiri poet, Bilhana in his epic Vikramankadevacharita narrates the episode when his patron Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI (1076–1126) refused the office of Yuvraja as it belonged by right to his elder brother, Someshvara II.^[15] However, when Chola army invaded the Chalukya country, Vikramaditya VI overthrows his elder brother and captures the Kalyani Chalukya throne.^[16] Manasollasa author king Someshvara III was the son and successor of Vikramaditya VI. In Eastern Chalukya (Chalukyas of Vengi) also we see that the eldest son of the reigning ruler occupied the position of the Yuvaraja even when he was a minor. Amma II became Yuvaraja when he was eight years old.^[17]

Decorating with high sounding titles was integral to and characteristics of Chalukyan kingship. The Chalukyan kings of all braches not only styled themselves with high-sounding titles such as Satyashraya (refuge of truth), Shri-Prithvi-Vallabha (lord of goddess of wealth and earth) Maharajadhiraja (king of great kings) and Paramesvara (Supreme Lord) but also performed many Vedic sacrifices in order to provide legitimacy to their rule. For example, Pulakeshin I (c.540 – c.567) performed the Ashvamedha, Rajyasurya, Hiranyagarbha, Agnistoma, Agnicayana, Vajapeya, Bahusuvarna and Pundarika sacrifices as prescribed in the Vedic literature to assert his sovereign status. The doctrine of the divinity of kings overwhelmed all branches of Chalukyan monarchy. The king was regarded as a divine protector.^[18]

Manasollasa

The Kalyani Chalukya dynasty king Someshvara III composed Manasollasa in 1129 CE. It is an encyclopaedic work covering topics such as polity, governance, ethics, economics, astrology, astronomy, rhetoric, horticulture, perfumes, food, veterinary medicine, games, painting, poetry, games, architecture, dance and music. Divided into five sections or Vimsatis, the two of which, first Rajyapraptikaraṇa describes the kingdom and qualifications of a king and second, Rajyasya Sthairyakaraṇa is dedicated to governance, economics and political stability. The former book describes the qualifications of a king and ministers, their duties and moral characteristics that enable the king to rule a stable, prosperous kingdom.^[19] Someshvara III asserts that the king should be truthful, avoid anger, be virtuous and lead by example. The king, ministers and citizens should refrain from injury to others, practice self-restraint and generosity, have faith in gods, feed and support the poor and helpless, and be friendly. The king, according to Rajyapraptikaraṇa, should honour his ancestors (pitrtarpana) and all guests (atithipujana).^[20] While the later provides administrative guidelines to kings, ministers and officers. Rajyasya Sthairyakaraṇa describes the ministers and their qualifications, the maintenance, equipment and training of an army with a Senapati (general) to command the army, the priests and astrologer as advisors to the king, the treasury and methods of taxation.^[21]

The Ministry

In all branches of Chalukyas, the king used to look after important policy matters of government, while the routine business of administration was transacted by his ministers. However, Badami Chalukyas records refers to only Sandhivigrahika or Mahasandhivigrahika who since the long-time serves as minister for peace and war and minister for foreign affairs in Indian history. In all the official records of the Badami Chalukyas, the foreign minister figures as the drafter and writer of official records, indicating his impact on the administrative machinery of the state. Available records do not shed any light on other ministers under Badami Chalukyas but we have reference that indicates that some type of administrative machinery under the routine supervision of the ministers existed at Vatapi (modern Badami), their capital city. To keep the realm of the vast territories in the hands of the king, the chief secretariat of the empire functioned under the Divirapati (the chief of the secretariat). The Eastern Chalukyan (Vengi Chalukya) records, however, refer to mantri and pradhana, besides a few other ministers.^[22] The office of the minister was next in importance to that of the sovereign under Vengi Chalukya. The king Vimaladitya (1011–1018) addressed through his Ranastipundi grant that “among the seven constituent parts of a kingdom the foremost is sovereignty, (and) second to it (is) a suitable ministry known by the name - amatyapadavi. Under Western Chalukyas, we know from Someshvara III text Manasollasa that that the king select seven or eight ministers. However, their records mention number of high officials, some of whom, in all probability served as ministers also. Purohita, Sandhivigrahin, Sandhivigrahika, Senadhipati, Dandanayaka, Dharmadhikari, Pradhana Mahamatya, Mahapradhana, Kosadhyaksham (chief of the treasury), and Kaditaverggade (revenue minister) found mention in various records of Kalyani Chalukyas.^[23]

A contemporary Kannada text Vaddaradhane contains instances which show that Chalukyan kings selected the sons and relatives of ministers while making new appointments to the ministry. However, they must possess the necessary qualifications. The story is narrated in Vaddaradhana illustrating that the son could succeed his father to the high office of minister provided he was well qualified for the same. A king called Atibala, after the death of his minister made enquiries whether the deceased minister had sons to succeed to the office. It was found that the minister was survived by two sons. Then the king summoned them to his court and examined their capabilities. But when the king and his court realised that they were utterly ignorant he sent them away declaring that the ministership was given only to the person well versed in in sastras (Sastramgalam ballomgam mantripadaviyam balumiam pratipattiyumam kottudu).^[24]

Administrative Divisions

The inscriptions of Chalukya of Badami describe them as the lord (Isvara) of Madhyavartidesa. In their inscriptions, the term used for their empire was rashtra and Maha-rashtras. However, in the dynastic epigraphs of the Chalukyas of all branches viz. Badami, Vengi and Kalyani, the term rashtra occurs with reference to district as well which suggest that there was no uniformity of this term in the epigraphic usages. Badami Chalukya kingdom was divided into at least three great divisions, as is evident from the Aihole Prasasti of Pulakesin II. The other administrative units referred to in the records of the dynasty are desa, mandala, nadu, vishaya, bhoga, ahara and grama. In some inscriptions, desa corresponds to the province while other equates it with vishaya. It seems that sometimes vishaya was used as a synonym for desa. But, in most of the inscriptions, vishaya usually corresponds to the present district of a varying size which includes many villages.^[25] In Chalukyas of Vengi, vishaya has also been refereed as kottam. Each vishaya was administered by an Adhyaksha i. e, superintendent in Eastern Chalukya kingdom.^[26] Whereas, mandala was another higher unit of administration compared to a Vishaya. The way in which nadu is referred to in the epigraphs suggests it to be a small provincial division, once ruled by an independent ruler and later on becoming part of the Chalukyan empire. The unit bhoga was bigger than vishaya but smaller than grama was administered by Bhogapati or Bhogika, who sometimes figured as one of the informants in the Chalukyan records or as a drafter of the record. The vishaya was divided into smaller units generally called ahara correspond to the present taluka in the Deccan. As always, grama was the lowest unit of administration under gramabhogika and gramakuta. ^[27]

Provincial Administration

There were three types of provinces in Chalukya Empire. First, the provinces which were governed by the members of the royal family who generally used to be prince. He functions as deputy of the king and they are referred to as viceroys. Then second type of provinces was those which were ruled by the governors appointed by the emperor on grounds of their allegiance. They were mainly comprised those persons who had earlier lost to the Chalukyas in battle and had surrendered. The third type of provinces included the feudatories who were given a fief and were expected to provide troops to the king when demanded. They gave annual tribute and presents on special occasions. It seems that the governors of the provinces appointed by the emperor were known as rajasamantas and the feudatories were called samantas.^[28] The governors administered their charge on behalf of the emperor and were responsible to him. They were probably vested with the power to appoint their subordinate officials like vishayapatis, bhogikas and rashtra-gramakutas. The post of governor was often hereditary. There was a circle of feudatories (samanta-cakra) under the Eastern Chalukyas. The feudatories were called Mandalika, Mahamandalegvara, Samanta, and Cakrin.^[29]

Local Government

Districts, towns and villages come under the purview of local government. Local administration was common in ancient India. Ever since the Vedic times a great importance was attached to administration of local units. From a study of the Chalukya inscriptions we may state that local government was continued on the ancient customs and practices. In order to recognise talents available in the local areas and also to constitute the village as an effective unit of social economic and cultural life, the Chalukya kings did adopt a policy of local administration.

1. District Administration

The vishaya of the Badami Chalukya records generally corresponded with the district of the modern administration. A vishaya would normally consist of many villages. The head of a vishaya was known as vishayapati. He had other officers to assist him in the administration of the district. These district officers have responsible for the up-keep of law and order in their districts. They also supervised collection of government taxes and revenues. The self-governing element in the district administration was the council of leading men like chief merchant, chief banker, head of guild of artisans called mahallakas which had a large voice in district administration and helps vishayapati whenever required. ^[30]

In the empire of Kalyani Chalukyas, the representatives of the town inhabited by merchants and businessmen were called the nakaras and their assembly was known as Nakara-samuha. The chief executive of the town assembly was pattanasvami (mayor). The pattanasvami enjoyed the confidence of the government and the people of the town. He built temples, tanks and such other works of public utility. Apart from the mayor, the other officials who were indispensable were the senabova and talara. Mostly taxes like land-tax, house-tax, tolls and fines constituted financial resources of the town assembly. Besides merchants and households, the mahajanas also joined the town assembly and the mathas or monasteries were also represented probably by their sthanapatis in the assembly.^[31]

2. Village Administration

The village administration was carried on with the help of the mahajanas, mahattaras and mahattarddhikarins and gavundas (village officials) who were probably appointed by the king as his representative. On the basis of the Chalukyan grants, it can be assumed that the boundaries of every village were properly demarcated. The social and economic affairs of the village were in the hands of the mahajanas (village elders). A Chalukyan Inscription mentions that prior permission was obtained from the village mahajanas before a piece of land was transferred to the temple (Mahajana praja- sammatade-Kottudu), i.e., given away with the assent of the subjects who were mahajanas.'^[32] The mahattaras were the leading householders of the villages and mahattaradhikarins represented the executive body of the assembly of mahattaras. The gramabhogikas and gramakutas were government officials related to the administration of the villages. Karanas were the village accountants assigned with the duty of maintaining the accounts of the proceeds of taxes charged from the householders of the village for the functioning of the assembly. In Eastern Chalukya, all the villages granted to Brahmans, temples and other religious institutions like Pabhuparru were under the immediate control of an official called gramani whom the king appointed with the consent of the holder of the grant.^[33] The Manneyas held assignments of land or revenue in different villages under the Chalukyas of Vengi.^[34]

Revenue

In the field of taxation, land tax became the main source of income to government. Land tax of under the Chalukyas was called bhagakara and sometimes udranga. There was no uniform rate of taxation. The rate of text varies from 8 to 33 per cent. This variation was due the nature of land. As a general, Badami Chalukyan followed the rule of Manusmriti which suggests that state should charge one-sixth of the produce as land-tax. Next to land tax, trade and industry were other important sources of revenue. Traders had to pay octroi duty as the government provided transport facilities for shifting goods. Custom duties varied according to commodities. Among taxes to be paid by industries, mention may be made of taxes paid by artisans like smiths and carpenters. In Badami Chalukya inscriptions, the customs and excise duties are mentioned as bhutopatta-pratyaya. It was also a tax levied on all manufactured goods (bhuta) and what has been imported (upatta).^[35]

The Eastern Chalukya of Vengi collected revenue from the villages in coins. Besides the usual revenue the villagers had to pay other kinds of taxes called Avendaya, Abhinava, Kridarasulka and Siddhaya. The merchants and the wealthy people had also to pay extra taxes. As far as the revenue of Western Chalukya of Kalyani is concerned, the various taxes collected by them grouped into royal dues and local cesses. The royal dues include the agricultural taxes, commercial taxes and judicial fines. The government derived the bulk of its revenue from the land tax known as siddhaya. Of the commercial taxes vaddaravula sumka was a source of revenue to the royal treasury. Judicial fines called dandaya constituted another source of income to the Kalyani Chalukya.^[36] The Western Chalukya king, Someshvara III says in Manasollasa that the king’s treasury should he always filled with gold, silver, jewels, ornaments and costly clothes and that pure gold in the form of bars, niskas (coins) or ornaments should be held in reserve in the royal treasury.^[37]

Judicial Administration

The Chalukyan king as usual was the supreme court of justice. He was most fitted to the task, being well-versed in the Smrtis and Dharmashastas. He seems to have been assisted by the administrative officials. This does not mean that there were no law courts below him. He was the highest appellate court in civil matters and could equally take cognizance of complaints of a criminal nature. Besides the court at the centre, there were also probably the lower courts for administering justice in several units of administration, known as bhoga, nadu, vishaya, rashtra and desa. There were elders in the village and towns whose help and assistance was sought in judicial matters. They seem to have been associated with the village pahchayats or people's courts. The Badami Chalukyan records also refer to some police officials and prescribe fines for certain crimes. The Lakshmesvar Inscription of Vikramaditya II refers to fines for theft and other minor offences numbering ten. Anjanerl Plates of one of a feudatory of the early Chalukyas refers to a fine of 108 rupakas for violence against an unmarried woman and 80 rupakas for adultery and 16 for grievous hurt and 4 rupakas for minor head injury. A few records discovered at Pattadakal reveal that offenders were punished with ex-communication and the forfeiture of the property of the accused. A Badami Inscription refers to the penalty for breach of contract.^[38]

Under Western Chalukyas, chief judge who was known as Dharmadhikarin and Sabhapati. Sabhapati in the disposal of suits get the help of three to seven jurors called as Sabhyas well versed in Vedas and Dharmashastra. Thus, the Sabhapati (chief judge) with the Sabhyas constituted the court. The court procedure has four stages; first receiving information from a person, then finding out under what section of law (vyavaharapada) the information falls, then consideration of the pleadings of the parties and the evidence by them and lastly the decision. The statements of both plaintiff (vadin) and defendant (prativadin) also used to be properly recorded in Kalyani Chalukyas court. Here it may be noted that the Manasollasa prefers human means of proof rather than divine ones.^[39] That the administration of justice was a responsible affair can be discerned from the fact that danda (coercive authority/punishment) of the ruler is dealt with in Dharmashastras. Manasollasa says the king who punishes the innocent and fails to punish the guilty, incurs misfortune and loses reputation. No man whether the king himself, sacrificial priest, domestic chaplain, or brother or any relative or friend of royal house is free from the danda if he swerves from his duty. Kalyani Chalukya king Someshvara III said that the law of the jungle prevails in a country where coercive authority is not prevalent. The people observe their duties through fear of danda and warn against the severe application of danda and plead, for its mild enforcement.^[40]

Women in Administration

Women during the period of Chalukyas of Badami, Vengi and Kalyani were given due respect and some of the ladies of the royal family in particulars ruled over the territory efficiently. The Chalukyan records refer to many women of the royal family donating land for acquiring religious merit, issuing grants for public works, and constructing temples. They were not only known for their sagacity, intelligence, benevolence but for efficient administration as well. A queen of Badami Chalukya dynasty, Vijaya Bhatarika, ruled over the kingdom after the death of her husband Chandraditya, as the regent of her minor son. She assumed the titles of Bhattarika and Mahadevi, which are suggestive of her being the ruler.^[41] Badami Chalukya king Vikramaditya II senior queen Lokamahadevi looked after the entire administration of Kuruttakumte and built Virupaksha temple to commemorate the victory of her husband over the Pallavas.^[42] The chief queen was called as Mahadevi and we have number of references suggesting that the queen helped the monarch in administrative matters. For instance, Mahadevi of the last Chalukyan monarch, Kirttivarman II also figures in connection with a gift, which was given at her request by the king from his military camp suggesting her presence on tour along with the ruler. ^[43]

In the rule of Kalyani Chalukya also, we find a good number of administrators among women too. Somaladevi, the queen of Jagadekamalla I was the governor of Alande between 1000 CE to 1033 CE. The chief queen of Vikramaditya named Jakkaladevi administered the village Ingaligi. Mayavatidevi supervised the agrahara of Diggave in 1106 CE. An inscription of 1084 CE describes the queen of Vikramaditya VI, Lakshmidevi, ruling the kingdom from Kalyana exactly as the emperor. Good number of women belonging to the families of subordinate officials also took part in administrative activities. A record dated 973 CE refers to Lakshmi wife of a feudatory administering koppa in Ksavola. ^[44]

However, the most distinguished woman ruler of Western Chalukya dynasty was Akkadevi, sister of King Jayasimha II. Akkadevi is well known for being an able administrator and capable general. She was proficient in all branches of knowledge, which included chanting recitations from books, solving riddles of words, knowledge of lexicon and meters, completing un-finished verses, singing and dancing and last but not the least military education. In the course of her rule, she expanded her province, encouraged education through grants, and gave donations to Hindu and Jain temples.^[45] Lachchala Mahadevi and Ketaladevi, queens of Somesvara I ruled grama and agrahara. A long list of women administrators which we get from inscriptions proves that they played an important part in the administration of Kalyani Chalukyas.