The Theory of State & Kingship

The Delhi Sultanate like all its contemporary Islamic States was a theocracy. It was based on the Islamic law as given in the Quran and Shariat expounded by jurists. While the religious law of State drew from the former and civil law from the later. According to Quran and Hadith the real king of Islamic state is God. The earthly Sultan is only his agent, bound to enforce his will as revealed in the Holy Scriptures. Thus, in spite of being an independent ruler for all practical purposes, all the kings of the Delhi Sultanate owned allegiance to the Caliph (religious head of Muslim world and regarded as the successor of Prophet). [4]

The government being foreign concerned itself with two administrative duties only, the collection of revenue and the maintenance of law and order. It had little to do with the welfare public. The non-Muslims (particularly the Hindus) were called zimmis, that is, those people living under guarantee or contract and had to pay the jizya tax[5], and often a teerth yatra mehsul tax, which formed a major source of revenue for the kings of Delhi Sultanate.[6] It was the wish of the individual ruler in terms of how strictly they imposed Islamic laws on India, but by and large (and medieval scholars like Ziauddin Barani and Abdul Malik Isami suggest that) Hindus were the great "Others" in the class conscious and aristocratic virtues of the ideal state for the Delhi Sultanate.[7] It is to be noted that kings of the Delhi Sultanate always considered their empire as the extension of Islamic Ghaznavid state.[8] As in some cases, theory of Islamic State had to undergo few modifications in consideration of the fact that vast majority of the subjects in Delhi Sultanate were Hindus whose social and religious conditions differed greatly from those contemplated by the Muslim jurists. Let take the instance when Ulema asked Iltutmish as well as other Delhi Sultanate Sultans not to levy jizya on idolatrous Hindus but give them choice between accepting Islam and death. In view, of the overwhelming majority of the Hindus, the Sultans dared not do so and rested satisfied with jizya.[9] Muslim jurists assign the following functions to the Sultans of Delhi [10]:

  1. To protect the Faith as defined by ijma (consensus on Islamic law)
  2. To settle disputes between his subjects
  3. To defend the territories of Islam, and to keep the highways and roads safe for travellers
  4. To maintain and enforce the criminal code
  5. To strengthen the frontiers of Muslim territory against possible aggression
  6. To wage a holy war against those who act in hostility to Islam
  7. To collect rates and taxes
  8. To apportion the shares of those who deserve an allowance from the public treasury
  9. To appoint officers to help him in his public and legal duties
  10. To keep in touch with public affairs and the condition of the people by personal contact.

Sultan, Amirans and Ulema

The Delhi Sultanate had an administrative system where the Sultan was at the apex, ruling and administering a large territory with the assistance of Amirans (nobles), ministers, officers, and various others. With absolute powers, he was the legal head of the state, the chief of the army, and had ultimate authority in judicial matters. Even when nobles became more powerful, Sultan was still the functionary head of the Sultanate. His position was often under pressure from the influential group of nobles and religious leaders. This group, known as Turkan-i Chihilgani or corps of forty, was introduced by Iltutmish, who selected Turkish slaves, trained and then employed them for their excellent administration, among other qualities. During the reign of Muizzuddin Bahram corps of forty became very influential and formed naib-i mamalakat, an equivalent centre of power to destabilize the Sultan's power. Later, Sultan Balban, a member of such a group, dealt with them ruthlessly after ascending the throne. [11]

Nobles

The nobles of the Delhi Sultanate were of high social status. In the early days, nobles generally included military commanders who came to India with the conquering forces. Their strength increased over time, along with the inclusion of some indigenous groups of India. There were times when they enjoyed more power in reality than the ruling Sultan, but these events were irregular and short-lived. The Sultanate nobility was heterogeneous in composition and divided into factions with clashing interests. During the early period of the Delhi Sultanate, only the Turks were preferred; however, in the times of Khilji and Tughlaqs, various other groups were also included. During Muhammad Tughlaq, people from lower strata too could join and elevate to higher ranks. Ziauddin Barani, complained about how Peera, the gardener and Maqbul, a slave, were promoted to high post. The Lodi period saw the Afghan concept of only first among equals, where the nobles and Sultan had equal status. [12]

Ulemas

Ulema was a group comprising scholars of Islam who looked after the religious affairs and interpreted Islamic laws for the Sultan. Important officials such as Sadr-us sudur, Shaikh-ul Islam, Qazi, Mufti Muhtasib, Imam and Khatib were selected from this theological class. They received grants from and, in exchange, provided legitimacy to the ruling class. They were very influential in matters of religion as well as politics.

The judicial affairs of the state were also their responsibility employed as Qazis at different levels of judicial administration. They were also influential in pressurizing Sultans to rule according to Islam law.[13] It was Ulema’s duty to see that rule of shariat was being applied on India. Ulemas played a pivotal role in instigating the rulers of Delhi Sultanate against Hindu subjects.[14] However, few Sultans like Allaudin Khilji due the fact that majority of his subjects were Hindus and in the administration of the country he required their assistance at the lower level, he sometimes disobeyed Ulemas and chose secular options. By and large, the Sultans of the Delhi Sultante acknowledged the authority of the Shariat, but they also added state law called Zawabit to bring practicality in solving disputes involving the people.[15]

Central Administration & Council of Ministers

The administrative system of the Delhi Sultanate was centralized and headed by the Sultan. In addition, several departments were administered by powerful nobles or members of the royal family.

The council of ministers included:[16]

  1. Diwan-i–Wizarat: After the Sultan's office, this was the most important position. The Wazir was in charge of this department. He was supported by Naib Wazir. Wazir oversaw all departments apart from being the Sultan's top advisor. Wazir was supposed to get the Sultan's consent before making any decisions.
    Main functions of Wazir –
    • To take care of the financial organization of the state
    • To provide timely advice to the Sultan
    • Take command of the military expedition based on the Sultan's order
    • Ensure proper and timely payment to the army
    • To monitor the land revenue collection from different parts of the empire
    • To ensure maintenance of a record of all income and expenditure incurred by the state.
    • Charitable donations such as waqfs, inams, etc. were also handled

    The Wizarat was in charge of the mints, royal buildings, intelligence divisions, and other royal court affiliations like the Karkhanas. Some minor departments with specific functions also functioned under this department were:

    • Mustaufi-i-Mumalik [Auditor General, in charge of expenditure],
    • Mushrif-i-Mumalik [Accountant General, in charge of income]
    • Majmuadar [keeper of loans and balances from treasury]
    • Diwan-i-Waqoof was introduced by Jalaluddin Khilji to supervise expenditure only; i.e., after separating 'income' records from 'expenditure' Records.
    • Diwan-i-Mustakhraj set up by Alauddin Khalaji to enquire into and realize arrears of revenue payments from the different parts of the empire.
    • Diwan-i-Amir Kohi, introduced by Muhammad bin Tughlaq. This department was responsible for bringing uncultivated land into cultivation through state support.[17]
  2. Diwan-i-Arz : This ministry was established to oversee the military organization. Ariz-i-Mumalik was in command of this department. The ministry was in charge of maintaining the royal contingents, recruiting soldiers, ensuring the army's discipline and fitness, kept records of every soldier (huliya), examining the horses, and branding them with the royal insignia (dagh). During wartime, Ariz organized military supplies, transportation, and army administration during war, providing constant supplies and being the custodian of war booty. In a hierarchy, after Ariz's position was the Sipahsalar. In addition, Allaudin Khilji introduced the system of dagh (branding), huliya (description), and cash payments to soldiers. This was done to to strengthen his authority over the army.
  3. Diwan-i-Rasalat: The office of Diwan-i-Rasalat was responsible for the judicial and religious administration, headed by Sadr-us-Sadr, a religious officer of the highest order. He was also the Qazi-i-Mumalik. He was responsible for selecting the Qazis at various levels and permitted waqf, wazifa, Idrar, etc.
  4. Naib-Ul-Mulk or Naib: This official held highest stature in the central government of the Sultanate who assisted Sultan in his administrative work.
  5. Diwan-i-Insha: This ministry was in charge of formulating and delivering royal directives. It was adopted from the Gurids who in turn adopted it from Ghaznavids. It also received information from officers throughout the empire. Dabir-i-Khas was in charge of this department. Dabir was also the Sultan's confidential secretary, in charge of composing the farmans. Barid-i-Mumalik was the head for news and intelligence, which were gathered by Barids at the local level.
  6. Diwan-i-Riyasat: This ministry rose to prominence during Alauddin Khilji's reign. Its main duty was to carry out the Sultan's economic rules and keep an eye on the markets and prices. This ministry kept track of all commodity deliveries and ensured that market criteria were met, such as inspecting weights and measures.
  7. Naib-i Riyasat: He was in charge of the market department. Every vendor was required to register with the market department. Munhiyans, or secret agents, were engaged to send reports to the Sultan about the working of these markets. The Sultan also dispatched slave boys to purchase various items to estimate market prices. If there was a discrepancy in the regulations, it was punished severely.
  8. Diwan-i-Qada: This ministry was in charge of administering justice as well as religious affairs. Sadr-us-Sadr was in charge of this department, who was the Qadi-i-Mumalik as well. The Diwan-i-Qada was led by Qadi-i-Mumalik. He appointed local Qadis (judges) to administer justice.
  9. Diwan-i-Mazalim: He was in charge of the Qadis, Kotwals (police), and Muhtasibs (Executive officers who supervised and enforced the public morals and public conveniences).
  10. Smaller Departments: At the centre, there were several lesser 'departments' that assisted in the empire's day-to-day administration. The Sultan was generally in charge of them directly. Those in charge of intelligence (such as the Barid-i-Mumalik), the royal household (directed by the Wakil-i-Dar), court ceremonies (managed by the Amir-i-Hajib), and royal bodyguards (under the Sar-i-Jandar) were all important positions. Slaves, royal workshops (Karkhanas), and key royal slaves performed various responsibilities such as bearing the royal parasol, serving wine, and so on were all taken care of by other important departments.

Provincial and Local Administration

The territory under Delhi Sultanate was divided into Iqtas that were distributed to nobles.[18] Later these became Subas or provinces. There were around 24 provinces under Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. Each province was placed under a governor named Wali or Muqti to maintain law and order and collect revenue. They kept a percentage for themselves and their troops' salary. They were independent in the beginning but later were closely scrutinized. The provinces were further divided into Shiqs administered by Shiqdars.[19] Later Shiqs got transformed into Sarkars in the Afghan period. The territorial unit, the Sarkar comprised of many Parganas headed by Amil. The Parganas consisted of many villages. The village headman was known as Muqaddam or Chaudhari.[20]

The governor's responsibilities included overseeing revenue collection, maintaining peace and order, and suppressing opposition to a central authority. He was the Sultan's delegated chief executive officer in the provinces, and he embodied the Sultan's administrative power. As remuneration, the governor receives a portion of the revenue collected. As a result, it was in the governor's best interests to secure proper and timely revenue collection. A set of bureaucrats was in charge of the communities. Local authorities such as Khot (village headman), Muqaddam (the local chief), Patwari (the village accountant), and Choudhary worked with the governor to collect revenue and maintain peace and order. In other circumstances, the governor was assisted in his duties by a local ruler known by various names such as Rai, Rana, Rawat, Raja, and so on.[21] These rulers were normally recognized as subordinates by the Sultan in the centre, but they also had sovereign authority over the centre's administrative operations. This approach permitted the Sultan to broaden his geographical reach while maintaining nominal sovereignty and a guaranteed financial commitment to the royal treasury. [22]

Delhi, the capital of the Sultanate, was important, and so was its administration. We are informed that under the Sultans, the city was divided into Lashkargah (army camp area) and Shahr (city proper). The Kotwal was in charge of keeping the fort's keys and the city. Tajuddin was one of the first kotwal. [23]

The other important officers in the provinces were the Barids, Shiqdar, Faujdar and Kotwal, Qazi, Amil, Amin. Here are some of their administrative designs: [24]

  • Barids was the head of the information and intelligence department. A nobleman who enjoyed the fullest confidence of the king was appointed the chief barid
  • The Shiqdar was in charge of the Shiq and also aided the governor in maintaining law and order, particularly in criminal justice, military support, land revenue collection, and repression of local revolt. His responsibilities also included the supervision of Paragana.
  • Faujdar had similar functions as Shiqdar. The Shiqdar and Faujdar were helped by some local officials such as Qazi, Amil, and Amin.
  • Kotwal worked under the supervision of Faujdar and was responsible for maintaining law and order.
  • Qazi was responsible for dealing with civil cases and acted as a juri consultant.
  • Amil was primarily responsible for the collection of the revenue.
  • Amin measured land in the reign of Sikandar Lodi.

The Sahib-i-Diwan was in charge of keeping track of the province income and spending. On the advice of Wazir, he was appointed by the Sultan. Mutassarifs and Karkuns assisted him.
The Nazir and Waquf were in charge of tax collection and expenditure, respectively. Khwaja was yet another key official (probably the same as Sahib-i-Diwan).

Revenue Administration

During the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, the Indian economy was primarily based on agricultural. As a result, land revenue was the principal source of income. The state used to own vast swaths of land known as Khalisa. Farmers tilled the Khalisa fields, which the centre oversaw. Amils carried the earnings from such territories to the central treasury. However, the majority of the area was divided into Iqta holdings. Various types of lands under the Delhi Sultanate and these lands were divided into three divisions:

  • Iqta land: lands given to officials as a form of iqta rather than payment for their services.
  • Khalisa land was under the direct control of the Sultan, and the money was used to maintain the royal court and royal household.
  • Inam land was land that was assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious institutions. [25]

Barani, in his Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, describes the agricultural policy in North India during the reign of Alauddin Khalji. According to the text, three taxes were levied on the peasants by the Sultan, viz. the Kharaj (also called Kharaj-I-jizya) or cultivation tax; Charai, a tax on milching cattle; and Ghari (a tax on houses). Kharaj was the land tax, and the lands of all sizes were subject to the procedure of measurement of land called Masahat and fixation of the yield per Biswa (Wafa-I-Biswa). Generally, the tax was collected in cash though sometimes collected in kind for specific purposes. [26]

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