Kingship

Hereditary monarchy was the prevailing type of government in Gupta period. Son usually succeeded the father. In Gupta dynasty, it was not the custom that the eldest son of the monarch was to be crowned Yuvraj (crown prince). Princes of the royal family were supposed to prove their eligibility before the assembly in the presence of the monarch. Most importantly, popular sentiment for a prince also determined the selection of king in the Gupta dynasty. In accordance with this practice, Samudragupta and Chandragupta II Vikramaditya ascended the throne despite not being the eldest son. The Eran stone inscription states that Samudragupta father selected him as the successor because of his "devotion, righteous conduct, and valour". Samudragupta’a Allahabad Pillar inscription similarly describes how his father Chandragupta I called him a noble person in front of the courtiers, and appointed him with the consent of his courtiers.^[7] According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, when Chandragupta I appointed him as the next emperor, the faces of other people of "equal birth" bore a "melancholy look". Most probably, ‘other people of equal birth’ mentioned here were other princes who aspired to become a king. It is likely that along with the qualification of Samudragupta, his background as the son of a Lichchhavi princess worked in his favour because the republic of Lichchhavi was very powerful.^[8]

The accession of Chandragupta II to the throne was more dramatic and throws much light on the practice that even a junior son succeeds his father if he was considered best among his brothers and enjoy the support of the assembly and people. The story goes that Samudragupta want to bypass Ramgupta, his eldest son over Chandragupta II because of his weak and vacillating character.^[9] However, following the custom the time, both the claimant to the throne had to meet the competition taken by the Council of Ministers. Chandragupta II on the wish of his mother, who wanted Ramgupta to become a next emperor, intentionally lost the contest. After becoming emperor, Ramgupta proved to an incompetent administrator and coward warrior. Vishakhadatta, a Sanskrit playwright who was a contemporary of Chandragupta II writes in Devichandraguptam that when Ramgupta was defeated at the hands of a Shaka ruler, he decided to surrender his wife Dhruvaswamini to an enemy to save his life. But, Chandragupta II enters the enemy camp disguised as the queen, and kills the Shaka ruler. Ramgupta public image suffered a lot because of this action while Chandragupta was regarded as a hero by the subjects.^[10]

In the Gupta Dynasty, we observe an inclination similar to that of the Kushana rulers for claiming divinity. Samudragupta in the Allahabad pillar inscription was compared with Indra, Varuna, Yama, and Kuvera and described as a Lokadhama-deva meaning god dwelling on the earth. The Gupta rulers from the time of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya generally described themselves as Paramabhagavata which is indicative of their Vaishnav affiliation. They also adopted the title of Paramadaivata for themselves.^[11] However, the divinity of king was not taken too literally either by the rulers or by the ruled. Gupta rulers never came forward to openly claim infallibility for himself or for his decrees on account of his theoretical divinity. A certain functional resemblance between the king and the divine guardians was emphasised considering that monarch will took inspiration for good governance from gods. Like Lord Vishnu is the overseer and protector of the earthly world, Gupta kings also projected themselves as protector and upholder of law and order in their empire.^[12]

Most of the Gupta rulers followed dictum of Smritis which emphasise that a king can become a successful ruler only if he studies the art of government, taker the advice of his council, cultivates religiousness and protects his subjects as efficiently as the divine guardians. King must work hard to master political science, fortitude, and leadership otherwise he will fail. The epigraphs of Gupta period condemn haughty, irreligious, immodest, and dictatorial kings and also speaks that they don’t have the authority to persecute their subjects. So the good kings were particularly careful in winning popularity among his subjects by respecting their wishes and promoting their welfare. We have every reason to believe that Gupta emperors lived up the ideal of kingship as emphasized in ancient law book of India.^[13]

The literature of Kalidasa shed light on many aspects of Gupta’s kingship. In his works, the kings are portrayed well-versed in the arts and political sciences such as the warfare, diplomacy, and political strategy. The most important thing they had to do was keep the established order in place with the greatest care. The people were required to pay to the Guptas king one-sixth of their cumulative income (sasth-amsa-vrtti). ^[14]

Administrative Organization of the Guptas

Gupta dynasty followed the monarchical from of government but there were many republics that flourished under the suzerainty of the Gupta Empire. Thus, the administrative organization of the Gupta rulers may be broadly divided into two parts:

1. Republican States
2. Monarchical Government

• Republican States: The chief republics were those of the Madras in the Central Punjab, Kunindas in the Kangra valley, Yaudheyas in the south- eastern Punjab, Arjunayanas in the Agra-Jaipur area, Malavas in the Central Rajputana and most importantly Lichchhavis of Vaishali in Bihar. In Central India also there were some small non-monarchical states like those of the Prarjunas, Kakas, Sanakanikas and Abhiras.^[15] It is worth mentioning that Gupta dynasty rose to power with the help of the republics especially, the Lichchhavis of Vaishali. The second emperor of the Gupta Empire, Samudragupta, ascended the throne despite not been the elder son of King Chandragupta I was made possible because of his background as the son of a Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi.^[16] The republics were free in their internal affairs and the rulers of the Gupta dynasty did not interfere with the autonomy of the republican states.
  
  For administration, each republic had a central assembly consisted of members from the aristocratic families. The central assembly had the authority to choose the members of the central executive body of each republic. The republics either disappeared or accepted the paramountcy of imperial Gupta rulers. They offered Guptas tribute but retained their autonomy. The Guptas never directly administered the territories of republics and so their administrative procedure and institutions could not have been much affected.^[19]
• Monarchical Government: For the purpose of good governance, three types of administrative divisions were made
  1. Central Administration
  2. Provisional and District Administration
  3. Village Administration

Central Administration
The king was the supreme authority of the central administration. All military, political, administrative, and judicial authority resided with the emperor. He was assisted by a Council of Ministers in the administrative affairs but the ultimate duty for making final decisions rested with him. He was often the commander-in-chief of the imperial army and used to lead important military campaigns. The Gupta kings nominated all important ministers, military and civil officers for the central administration and governors of the provinces. The secretariat at the capital worked under his personal direction and supervision and the provincial governors were also responsible to him.

It looks like that although kings were almost absolute rulers, but in reality, they had to share their power with central ministers, provincial governors, and other senior officials who, even though they weren't accountable to the people, were expected to check on the king if he broke the rules.^[20]

The ministers appointed by the king for central government were known as Mantris or Sachivas. Kamandaka’s Nitisara classified ministers into three broad categories of Mantrins, Sachivas and Amatyas. The Mantrins and Amatyas were primarily concerned with the six-fold policy and with the charge of territorial units and revenue respectively. The Sachivas were placed in charge of the military department.^[21] In referring to the qualifications of the Sachivas, Kamandaka in his Nitisara lays down that they should possess high birth (kulinah), prowess (surah), purity (sucayah), loyalty (anuraginah), learning (srutavanto), and training in practical politics (dapda-niteh prayoktadrah). A Mantrin, according to Kamandaka, needs to have an excellent memory (smrtih), application of the intellect to works undertaken (tatparat-arthesu), capacity for a thorough discussion (vitarko), steadiness in work (drdhata), power to arrive at a proper decision (jnana-niscayah), and preservation of state secrets (mantraguptis-ca). Kamandaka values the Mantrins' advice highly, yet he doesn't minimize the significance of the king's power at the same time. King is the one who makes the ultimate decision.^[22]

Only brave, able and courageous persons were appointed as ministers after undergoing an examination taken by the sabha (assembly or council of minister) in the presence the king. Like the king, the ministers' positions were safe for as long as the royal assembly trusted them; non-performance of administrative duties led to jeopardised their position. This is evident from the Jungadh Inscription where Chakra-Palita, the minister of later Gupta monarch Skanda Gupta, gives utterance to similar opinion.^[23] During Gupta period, ecclesiastical, revenue, military, police, land and trade departments were under the charge of different ministry. It appears that there was little to no distinction between ministers and the administrative heads of the various departments, and that ministerial roles were not necessarily viewed as superior to those of the department heads. Each office had its own seal, which was always used to authenticate correspondence. Routine work was carried out by each minister, but major issues were brought to the council as a whole, which was overseen by the king.^[24] In Gupta period, councillors and high officials referred to as kumaramatyas or “princely ministers” also plays important role in the administration. ^[25]

Important ministers and administrative officials under the Guptas are as follows^[26] :

1. Vinayasthitisthapakas: He was a kind of purohit of earlier times. Kamandaka mentions Rajaguru in Nitisara. He was empowered to influence the decision of the Council of Ministers.
2. Mahabaladhikarana: Military General but enjoyed the status of a minister.
3. Sarvadhyaksha: General Superintendent of the central administration. His duty was to convey the orders of the central government to the provinces and districts through special messengers.
4. Mahasenapati: He was the head of the military department. There were a number of Mahasenpatis under the king in the Gupta Empire.
5. Mahadandanayaka: He appears to have been the subordinates of Mahasenapati. Each of the branches of army has its different cadre of officers and they bore significant titles like asvapatis, mahasvapatis, pilupatis and mahapilupatis (captain and brigadiers in the cavalry and elephant corps).
6. Mahasandhivigrahika: He was the foreign minister and worked in close co-operation with the king and the military department.
7. Pratiharas and Mahapratiharas were important officers in the royal court. They regulated its ceremonial and granted the necessary permits for admission to the royal presence.
8. Dandapasikas: He was the superintendent of the police department. Ordinary members of the police force were known as chatas and bhatas.
9. The name of the officer in charge of the revenue department is not known. This department was in charge of collection of taxes and revenue. Waste lands., forests and mines which were state properties were administered by this department.
10. Khadyatapakika: He was in charge of the royal kitchen. It is worth mentioning that Harisena, the composer of the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta was a foreign minister, and also a military general, an officer controlling the supervision of the Royal Kitchen (Khadyatapakika), chief of the police and a criminal judge. It indicates that either a minister was transferred from one portfolio to another or that one minister was in charge of several departments.
11. Yaktapurushas: The king as a conqueror employed special officers called Yaktapurushas who were appointed to restore to the vanquished the properties seized by the king.

Provincial and District Administration

As already been mentioned, for the sake of administrative convenience and efficiency, the empire was divided into administrative divisions from top to bottom. The territory of the empire is called a rajya, rashtra, desa or mandala.^[27] The empire was divided into provinces called a Bhukti or Bhogika whose governor bears various designations like Bhogika, Bhogapati, Gopta, Rajasthaniya and Uparika-maharaja. Bhukti has fiscal implications and shows that provinces were meant to be fiscal division. Gopta means protector indicating that the governor was expected to protect the people of his province. The term Rajasthaniya alluded to viceroyalty indicating that he was the representative of the king. This position was occasionally filled by princes of the royal family. One of the important officials of the province called Kumaramatya was the minister of a price-viceroy, i.e. Rajasthaniya. The provincial governor had a number of subordinates called Tanniyuktakas.^[28] The governor of the province was provided with a staff of private secretaries called in the inscriptions Dutas, Dutakas, or Ajna-dapakas who communicates his orders.^[29]

Below the province, and a part of it was the Vishaya or district. Vishaya were governed by Vishayapatis who were usually appointed by the Uparikas, but sometimes directly by the emperor himself. Often they had the status of a Maharaja. Vishayapati often belongs to the class of the Kumaramatyas and were aided in their administrative work by a Board of Advisors consisting of four members representing the various important sections, namely, (i) the nagarsresthis (chief of the guild of traders and bankers) represented the guilds in particular and the urban population in general (ii) sarthavaha (the head of guild of traders) represented the various trading communities, (iii) prathamakulika (the chief of artisan) representing various artisan classes, (iv) prathamakayastha (the chief scribe), who might have represented the Kayastha or government official like the Chief Secretary of the present day. This body was called Adhisthanadhikarana.^[30]

In vishaya, mayor of the city is worthy of mention who was called Pustapala/Pustapala or Nagara-Rakshaka. His duty was to records dimensions of land, cultivated and uncultivated, situated within the district. The city was governed by a Municipality called Parishad headed by Nagara-Rakshaka. His subordinate official who served as the Superintendent of Dharmasala in the city was called Akshapatalikas.^[31] The executive officers of the district are called by the generic names of Samvyavahari and Ayukatas. The District officer was helped in his administration by a group of officers listed below:

• Mahattaras (Village Elders).
• Ashtakuladhikaranikas (Probably officer in charge of groups of families in the local area).
• Gramikas (Village headmen).
• Saulkika (Collector of customs and tolls).
• Gaulmika (In charge of forests and forts).
• Agraharika (In charge of settlements dedicated to gods or Brahmins.
• Dhruvadhikaranika (Land Revenue Officer).
• Bhandagaradhikrita (Treasurer).
• Talavataka (Village Accountant)
• Utkhetayita (Collector of taxes).
• Pustapala (Notary and Keeper of Records)^[32]

Village Administration

The village which always has been the smallest unit of administration in India was governed by village headman known as Gramika or Gramadhyaksha during the Gupta period. The jurisdiction of the village authorities extended over houses, streets, markets, burning grounds, temples, tanks, wells, waste lands, forests and cultivable lands. While agriculture accounted for a significant portion of village income, most communities also maintained their own set of artisans such as potters, carpenters, oil presses, and jewellers. The headman was assisted in his work by a non-official local council, the members of which were usually known as Mahattaras.^[33] This non-official council known as Panchamandala played a significant role in the administration of the village. The village council discharged almost all the functions of government. It looked after village defence, settled village disputes, organised works of public utility, acted as a trustee for minors, and collected the government revenues and paid them into the central treasury.^[34]

Guilds in Gupta Period

An important aspect of economic and administrative aspect during the Gupta period was the vigorous activity of the numerous guilds and corporation. The professional organizations of merchants, bankers, and artisans organized themselves in a corporation or guilds known as shreni not only contributed in the economic progress in ancient India but also administered cities efficiently.^[35] Professional organizations of this period were respected and well regarded. The seals of the Gupta period show that artisans, merchants, and scribes served in the same corporate body, and in this capacity, they conducted the affairs of the towns. Guilds were independent organisations with their own set of laws that were often recognised and upheld even by the central government. Studies of these seals suggest that Nigama was a guild, Sresthin was a banker, Sarthavaha was a trader, and Kulika was a merchant. These guilds were like the present-day chamber of commerce. The administrative board of the district of Kotivarsha in Bengal included the chief artisan, chief merchant, and chief trader. Their consent was considered necessary for land transactions.^[36] Sometimes these guilds federated themselves into a larger corporation, as we find a reference of ‘Shresthi-Kulikao-Nigama’ which alludes to the Corporation of Bankers and Merchants in one of the Gupta seal.^[37] The senior members of the guilds usually had important roles on the town and district boards.

The royal treasury has always been considered in ancient India as the limbs of the state. Kamandaka’s Nitisara vividly explained the importance of wealth to the empire. He remarks that functioning of the empire depends on the treasury of the ruler. The king who possesses replenish treasury evokes the respect and goodwill of his subjects. All the Dharmashastra of ancient India intended to strike a reasonable balance between the interests of the individual and the public interest which means attainment of the trivarga - dharma, artha, and kama.

Arth signifying wealth in the context of the state is the royal treasury was regarded as essential for administration. However, revenue acquired by unlawful means and excessive taxation was considered immoral. Thus, Guptas developed different types of taxes for state revenue. Besides the traditional source of revenue from taxation, Guptas kings added much to their treasury with wealth earned during their digvijya (conquest in all direction) campaigns.^[38]

Among the important tax of the Gupta period, the land-tax of was the most prominent. It was called Bhagakara in some provinces and Udranga in others. Udranga was usually collected by the king. The rate of Bhagakara and Udranga seems to have varied from 16 to 25 per cent according to the quality of the land. The government's share of the yield would decrease proportionally if the yield were to fall below a certain level. The State claimed ownership in forests, waste lands, pastures, and salt-mines, and acquired considerable revenue by letting them out or selling their produce.^[39] Different sources of revenue and various taxes mentioned in the records of grants of land in Gupta Empire are listed below:

• Udranga (land-tax)
• Uparikara (a tax levied on cultivators who have no proprietary rights on soil)
• Bhuta (probably what is grown)
• Dhanya (unexplained)
• Hiranya (gold)
• Adeya (what is to be surrendered)
• Vaishtika (forcod labour, if necessary)
• Dasaparadha (Fines from Ten Offences., viz., (a) three offences of the body, theft, murder, and adultery; (b) four offences of speech, harsh words, untruthful words, libellous words and pointless words; and (c) three offences of mind, covering other’s property, thinking of wrong, and devotion to what is not true
• Bhoga (enjoyment)
• Bhaga (share)^[40]

Gupta monarchs so seriously follow the decree of Dharmashastra that one of the inscriptions indicates the obligations imposed by the state on a village rendered free by the king’s grant. The inscriptions read as follows:

“It (village) is not to pay taxes (akaradayi); it is not to be molested by the regular troops or police (bhata), outlaws (ckata); it is not to yield increase in its cows and bulls; nor in its flowers or milk, pasturage, hides, and charcoal; nor any taxes on salt or we salt, on sale and purchase, or produce of mines; it is not to contribute forced labour or surrender its hidden treasures and deposits.”