Kingship

As far as the origin of kingship in Tamilakam (region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people) is concerned, it has been suggested that organized government under a king in the Tamil country must have had its origin in the pasture land or Mullai tracts. The Pandyan Kingdom was the earliest Kingdom to be established in the Sangam age. The Kishkinda Kanda of Ramayana and Mahabharata has a reference to only the Pandyan kingdom. Kautilya’s Arthshastaa also only mentions ‘Pandyan Kavataham’ and ‘Mathuram’. According to Magesthanes, the Pandyan kingdom was ruled by women. He described the Pandyan queen at the time, Pandaia as a daughter of Heracles. The belief that the Pandyas were descended from the moon god suggests the “divine origin” of the kings of South India. On the other hand, Cholas claimed their descendants of the sun god, thus assuring for themselves solar ancestry. ^[6]

The king was the epicenter and embodiment of administration. He was called Ko, Mannan, Vendan, Korravan, Iraivan and Korravan. The word “ko” is frequently used interchangeably for the monarch and god. The place of the king, as well as the Temple of God, was called Koyil, i.e. the abode of the Ko. Mannan was a ruler with a “permanent reputation,” but it seems that Mannan meant a smaller and less important king, while Vendan meant a bigger and more important king. Vendan wore a crown — veyndon. Only the three crowned monarchs of Tamilakam were vendar. The lesser chieftains did not allow wearing a regular crown and so could be called only mannan and not vendar.^[7]

The most common form of government in the Sangam age was the hereditary monarchy. The eldest son of the reigning king generally succeeded his father. The throne was inherited by him as by right and was called Murai Mudal Kattil. Interestingly, we also find reference to the king’s election in a very unique way. When due to any accident, the throne fell vacant, and no suitable claimant was found available for the throne, leading subjects and ministers chose the king. It is likely that sometimes the people formally assembled to arrange the coronation of a king.^[8]

The Sangam Age literature emphasizes wisdom and high political principle in the matter of governance. In theory, the king was the protector of the Universal Order and not just the protector of the people from internal and external physical danger. However, even though the king in all essential respects was an autocrat, his autocratic tendencies used to be moderated by wise counsel and occasional intervention of ministers. Thiruvalluvar, the author of the great Tamil classic Kural prescribed advisory for the kings of the Sangam age and warns them against the corrupting influence of unlimited power. The repentance of the wise man, the chastity of the woman, and even the cycle of the seasons all depended on the just rule of the king. Thiruvalluvar affirms:

The learning and virtue of the sages spring from the sceptre of the King:
again,
Where King, who righteous laws regards, the sceptre wields.
There fall the showers, there rich abundance crowns the fields
Not lance gives kings the victory.
But sceptre swayed with equity. ^[9]

Sangam literature is filled with moral obligations for kings which emphasize the importance and the glory of a just rule. Such maxims and exhortations were meant to help kings make good decisions and help their subjects. As such, he took the lead in every event of his people, especially with the one’s social importance, and assumed important titles at the coronation.

Administrative Units

The Chola, Pandya, and Cheras kingdoms were not strictly politically divided into provinces, districts, and villages but there are references to show that divisions were made for administrative purposes. The entire kingdom was called Mandilam. The Tamil epic, Silappadikaram which forms part of the Sangam literature refers to kings as Mandila Makkal. The Pandya Mandalam, the Chola Mandalam, and the Chera Mandalam were the original major mandalams.^[10] Below the Mandalam, a major division was Nadu and Kurram. It is difficult to decide if Kurram was a subdivision of Nadu or the other way round.^[11] The Nadu seems to have been the connecting link between the kingdom as a whole and the smallest unit of local administration which is referred to usually as gramam.^[12] The Ur was a town while Perur was a big village and Sirur was a small village. We come across another kind of village known as Mudur which in all possibility was an old village. The coastal town was called Pattinam and Puhar was the harbour area. Ur which stands for the town was always larger than a Cheri which denotes a suburb.^[13]

Council of Ministers and Other Officials

The power of the hereditary monarch was restricted by five councils known as the “Five Great Assemblies”. They included ministers, augurs or astrologers, priests, physicians, and representatives of the people. The people’s rights and privileges were protected by the Council of Representatives. The priests were in charge of all religious ceremonies, and physicians took care of the health of the king and his subjects. The astrologer set good times for public ceremonies and predicted important events, and the ministers were in charge of collecting and spending taxes and enforcing the law.^[14] However, the “Assembly of Five” may also be consisted of the minister, the purohita, the commander-in-chief, an ambassador, and a spy.^[15] Each of these assemblies had its own place in the main city where they could hold meetings and perform their administrative duties. All government power was in the hands of the king and the “Five Great Assemblies.” Even though the Pandya, Chola, and Chera countries were independent of each other, they all used the same way to run their governments.^[16]

Besides “Five Great Assemblies”, another group of persons called “The eight Groups of Attendants,” found mentioned in the Sangam literature. They served the king in various capacities. As the position of the king was surrounded with pomp and dignity, he was served by numerous companies of attendants. “The eight groups of Attendants” included perfumers (sandu), betel bearers (Ilai), garland makers (Pu), armourers (Kachchu), arecanut servers (Pakku), dressing valets (adai), torch or light-bearers and body guards. These were groups of officials who simply had individual obligations to the king and no collective status. It is worthwhile to mention here that, Silappadikaram and Manimekalai, two of the greatest Tamil epics of the Sangam period called “Five Great Assemblies” as Aimperunkulu and “The eight groups of Attendants” as Emperayam.^[17] We get another list of officials from the standard commentaries of the “Eight Groups of Attendants”. The list is: (1) Karanattiyalavar (accountants), (2) Karumakarar (executive officials), (3)Kanakasurram (treasury officials), (4) Kadaikappalar (palace guards), (5) Nagaramandar (elderly persons in the city), (6) Padaittalaivar (chiefs of the infantry), (7) Yanai Virar (chiefs of the elephantry), and (8) Ivuli Maravar (chiefs of the cavalry).^[18]

The representative character of Aimperunkulu and Emperayam and the effective control they used to exercise over the administration are established by the Sangam literature. It is important to notice that the ministers formed one of the assemblies. The assemblies can fairly be likened to the ‘Privy Council’, with the assembly of ministers serving as an intermediary for the ‘cabinet’ made up of a select group of individuals. On the whole, it appears that the Sangam assemblies were a modified type of the ancient Samiti, as referred to in the post-Vedic literature and epics like Mahabharata and also in Arthasastra. ^[19]

The king’s policies were controlled by a system of checks and balances in the councils. The above-mentioned assemblies of five and eight members functioned as administrative bodies, focusing on their function that was predominantly advisory in nature and their advice was mostly good enough to be accepted by the king. Maduraikkanji describes the function of the assembly as judicial, with Aimperunkulu being more in command.^[20] The Sangam Age kingdoms also maintained an army of well-equipped professional soldiers. The enadi title was bestowed on the army captains during a formal investiture ceremony in which the monarch presented his chosen commander with a ring along with other insignia of high military rank.^[21]

The Aimperungulu comprised of:

According to V. Kanakasabhai

Amaichchar (Ministers)

Purohita (Priests)

Maruttar (Physicians)

Kani or Perunkani (Astrologers)

Masanam (People)

According to V. R. Ramacharan Dikshitar

Amaichchar (Ministers)

Purohitar (Priest)

Senapatiyar (Army Chief)

Dutar (Envoys and ambassadors)

Orrar (Spices)

The Enperayam consisted of:
1. Karanattiyalavar (accountants)
2. Karumakarar (executive officials)
3. Kanakasurram (treasury officials)
4. Kadaikappalar (palace guards)
5. Nagaramandar (elderly persons in the city)
6. Padaittalaivar (chiefs of the infantry)
7. Yanai Virar (chiefs of the elephantry)
8. Ivuli Maravar (chiefs of the cavalry)

Rural Administration

As has always been the case in India, the village served as the primary administrative division. The village took care of most of its own needs. In connection with the management of village affairs during the Sangam age, we come across the terms like Manram, Podiyil, and Ambalam. The Manram, the Podiyil, and the Ambalam seem to be synonymous terms and they meet in the small village assembly called Avai to transact local business.^[22]

Each village of the Pandya, Cholas, and Cheras kingdom had a place where everyone could meet, usually under the shade of a big tree. This is where men, women, and children met to conduct common village activities. Manram appears to have occupied an important place in the politics of rural life which later developed into a system of village government in later Cola times.^[23] In Pandya country, the gramam served as the local administrative unit and evidence suggests that it was capable of handling its own affairs efficiently and gained the confidence of the king by its rectitude conduct of affairs.^[24]

Taxation

It appears that taxes and trade were the main sources of income for the king. The ma and the veli were known as measures of land, but we do not get any information from the Sangam literature about the king’s share from the produce of agriculture. The peasant was held in high reverence and was considered the backbone of the country’s prosperity. We find many references in Sangam literature admiring peasants and artisans for their contribution to the country’s economy. The great Tamil poet Thiruvalluvar affirms that the life of a peasant was the only life worth the name, the life of all the rest being one of servitude and sycophancy. Pattinappalai, the Tamil poem of the ancient Sangam literature gives a vivid account of the activities of the customs officials which testifies to the importance of foreign trade during this period. This attests that custom duties were important source of revenue. ^[25]