Kingship

The spirit underlying the resurgence of Dharma under the rulers of Vijayanagar found favour with Hindu lawgivers from Manu and Kautilya down to Thiruvalluvar and Sayanacharya (a Vedic scholar in the court of Vijayanagara emperors, Bukka Raya I and his successor Harihara I). Great sage Vidyaranya’s (Madhavacharya) evocation to Harihara and Bukka Raya to restore the order of Dharma was embodiment of the statement found mention in ancient Indian texts of polity. That the king is the creator of the age, and that the nature of his rule produced corresponding variations in the social, moral, and even physical condition of the times found expression in Dharmashastras, and epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata. Manusmriti says, “The various ways in which a king behaves (resemble) the Satya, Treta, Dvapara and Kali ages. Hence the king is identified with the ages (of the world)”. Bhishma who had the boon of Svecchamṛtyu (self-willed death) when decided to die was requested by Lord Krishna to give a lesson on polity to Yudhishthira, says “Whether it is the king that makes the age, or it is the age that makes the king, is a question about which thou shouldest not entertain any doubt. The truth is that the king makes the age”. [4]

We have ample evidence to suggest that rulers of Vijayanagara imbibed such political principles which argues that king is the marker of the age. From their point of view, “national” regeneration could only be achieved when political emancipation gets secured. Harihara and Bukka was taught by their guru Vidyaranya that the ruler had to create the proper political environment in order to foster all that is recommended in Dharmashastras. That this was exactly in the minds of the Vijayanagara Empire rulers is evident from the manner in which they promoted the ancient social and moral laws. In many of the their inscriptions and contemporary literature, they were referred to as ‘Defenders of the Dharma’ for the political rejuvenation they brought in that ultimately led to preservation of ancient heritage.[5] The ancient ideal of the Hindu monarchs, who thus firmly established Dharma, and converted thereby the Kali (dark) age into the Satya age of righteousness, find mention in the writings of the greatest king of Vijayanagara, Krishna Deva Raya, who in his Telugu epic poem, Amuktamalyada, says. “A crowned king should always rule with an eye towards Dharma”.[6] The following regulations, which were established by none other than Krishna Deva Raya, are meant to serve as broad guidelines for the conduct of kings. Thus, he writes in Amuktamalyada,

“A king should rule collecting round him people skilled in state crafts, should investigate the mines yielding precious metals in his kingdom and extract the same, should levy taxes from his people moderately, should counteract the acts of his enemies by crushing them with force, should be friendly, should protect one and all of his subjects, should put an end to the mixing up of the social groups among them, should always try to increase the merit of the Brahmans, should strengthen his fortress and lessen the growth of the un- desirable things and should be ever mindful of the purification of his cities and thus strengthen himself and increase his longevity just as a man strengthens his own body and increases his longevity by consulting good doctors, by learning the properties of the seven Dhatus…”[7]

The Vijayanagara monarchs set for themselves a duty to give protection to all their subjects and redress their grievances. This primary duty called raksanam entailed a double responsibility of protecting the country from the foreigner and to maintain an efficient police and military organization to ensure the preservation of law and order in the country. Krishna Deva Raya, in particular, desired that the he as a king should always be anxious to protect their subjects and redress their grievances. [8]

Two instances of kings redressing the grievances of his subjects are worth mentioning. Two valuable lithic records, one found at Elavanasur and the other at Keller, (both in the South Arcot District) discloses that when the ministers took presents by force, the discontented farmers migrated to other regions due to which worship and festivals ceased in temples and the country became full of disease. Hence the king interfered and prohibited such extortion in future, and order engraved order in the whole country. These records show that the kings took an active interest in orderly government and tried to put an end to oppression by their subordinates. Another inscription at Aragalir in the Salem district speaks of the oppression by the rajagaram (royal officers), and the king’s interference. It registers that three sthinikas of the temple of Perumal Kariyavar went on a deputation to the king at Vijayanagar, and complained of the injustice done by the rajagaram in village belonging to the temple. The king met them generously and redressed all their grievances.[9] These records show that the kings took an active interest in orderly government of the country and tried to put an end to oppression by their subordinates if they ill administered.

The Vijayanagar Empire was governed under a monarchical constitution in which the king was the head of the government and occupied a supreme position in the State. In fact, the king was the pivot of the administrative machinery.[10] According to ancient political thinkers the State consisted of seven elements viz. Svamin (Lord), Amatya (minister), Janapada (Territory), Durga (fort), Kosa (treasury), Danda (army) and Mitra (ally) of which the king was the most important. However, for the well-being of the State it was suggested that all these elements should work in harmony for the common weal.[11] Amuktamalyada of Krishna Deva Raya also emphasises that the Sarvabhauma (Emperor) should be able to enforce his commands.[12] The Navaratnramulwu and Saptingapaddhati, a series of verses addressed to Vijayanagara emperor, Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya, provide credence to this as it leaves the impression that the monarch was the most important person in the Vijayanagar Empire. [13]

In the Vijayanagar Empire, the kings appointed their successors and anointed them Yuvaraja during their life-time. By making a prince Yuvaraja, the king gave him official training in administration. The crowned prince was placed in charge of the government of a part of the kingdom, the king watching his rule and guiding him from a distance. Generally the ceremony called Yuvarajapattabhisekam was celebrated when the crown prince had gained all theoretical knowledge of administration. We have indications of that system of Co-Rulership prevailed in the Vijayanagar as we have reference that suggest that Harihara I and Bukka I, the founders of the empire ruled jointly. It seems that Yuvraja would have been a Co-ruler with the reigning king. Bukka would be a Yuvraja during the reign of Harihara and in this capacity should have ruled as co-ruler but when Harihara died, he must have assumed the position of king. We have numerous evidences, where crown princes had assumed imperial titles and ruled independently in their province.[14]

The rule that eldest son succeed to the throne was also not rigidly followed as we see that even the second ruler of the Vijayanagar Bukka Raya I was the brother of Harihara I, the first king of Vijayanagar Empire. But in certain circumstances, when the king wants to retired from active politics to spend the rest of their life in pious meditation, and a crown price, Yuvaraja still very young, he appoints a regent (Pampu) for a minor king. Thus, according to Rajanatha Dindima II who wrote Saluvabhyudayam, king Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya was installed to the throne of Vijayanagara by his father when he retired to the forests as a Vanaprastha (part of the Vedic ashrama system, which starts when a person hands over household responsibilities to the next generation).[15] Krishna Deva Raya also appointed his half-brother, Acyutadeva Raya as regent to his son Tirumala when he decided to retire. However, usurpation was not uncommon in the Vijayanagara.[16]

Council of Ministers

The idea of a ruler conducting the administration of the country with the aid of civil service is as old as Manu. Manusmriti says, “Even an undertaking easy (in itself) is sometimes hard to be accomplished by a single man; how much (harder is it for a king), especially (if he has) no assistant, (to govern) a kingdom which yields great revenues”.[17] Krishna Deva Raya was evidently conversant with the injunction of Manusmriti, as is clear from the following statement he made in his Amuktamalyada:

“When the work of a single subordinate (officer) is entrusted to a number of men and when each of them is assisted by his friends the business of the State may easily be accomplished. On the other hand when the staffs are decreased, work cannot be turned out when business increases. No business can be accomplished by money alone without the cooperation of many big officers. For having them in due subordination the following are essential — absence of greed, absence of cruelty and truthfulness”.[18]

The inscriptions as well as the accounts of foreign travellers throw light on the general features of the administration of Vijayanagara. The king was assisted by a council of ministers. It was a permanent body which influenced the policy of the king. In its constitution and powers it was analogous to the Mantriparisad of Kautilya. It appears the Council of Ministers generally met in a special chamber. We get to know from Acyutarayabhyudaya of Rajanatha Dindima that the council met in a hall called Venkatavilasamantapa.[19] Barbosa mentions a council room where the king sits present on certain days with his governors and officers to hear the correspondence and attend to the administration of the kingdom”. [20]

About the council or secretariat, we have good details in the chronicles of the Portuguese travellers Nuniz, while describing an incident in the diplomatic relations between Krishna Deva Raya and Sultan Adil Shah of Bahmani kingdom. When Adil Shah misappropriated the revenues belonging to the Vijayanagara, Krishna Deva Raya King showed such an indignation that he was determined to take full vengeance. But the ministers advised the king not to go for war for such a small sum of money and it would be unwise to break prolonged a peace between the two states for such a trifling reason. However, when the ministers saw that the Krishna Deva Raya remained unmoved from his determination to make war, Nuniz describe, they then consulted him, saying:

“Sire, do not go to war by that route (Dabull), but go against Rachol, which now belongs to the Ydallcoa but of old was part of the kingdom; then the Ydallcoa will be forced to come to defend it, and thus will take vengeance jointly both on one and the other”. [21]

Nuniz says that king held this advice to be good and prepare for his departure. This is an evidence of an influence of a council on the stubborn stand made by the king as regards the question of war, of the equally persistent attitude of the ministers, and last but not the least, of the manner in which the emperor yielded to the advice of his council of ministers. Thus, a high qualification was expected of the minister. He was to be a scholar, afraid of adharma (that which is not in accord with the dharma, connotations include betrayal, discord, disharmony, unnaturalness, wrongness, evil, immorality, unrighteousness, wickedness, and vice), well versed in rajaniti (politics), between the ages of fifty and seventy, healthy in body, his connection with the king coming down from previous generations, and he was not to be conceited.

Krishna Deva Raya himself assures that under such a minister, the, angas of a king (the constituents of royalty) would increase.[22] His court was also famous for Ashtadiggajasis - the collective title given to the eight Telugu scholars famous in legend. Ashtadiggajasis included much celebrated Tenali Raman known for his wit and wisdom. He was special advisor to Krishna Deva Raya.[23]

It is also said in Catupadya Manimanjari, that the king should possess a versatile minister well adept in Sastra (scriptures) and Astrasastra (sword).[24] We have ample evidence which suggest that this was not mere ideal aimed at by the Vijayanagara emperors for their ministers. The history of the Vijayanagar furnishes a long line of skilled and successful ministers. A Vedic scholar Sayaṇacharya who wrote many commentaries on the Vedas and was well-versed in art of combat is worth mentioning here. He was prime minister in Bukka Raya's court and carries Vedas in his hand and keep sword on his waist.[25] Sometimes even a strong monarch like Krishna Deva Raya felt council of minister too powerful as he is said to have remarked in one of his monologue: “I am sitting on the throne, but the world is ruled by the ministers; who listens to my words?” [26]

From the inscriptions of the period we may infer that in Vijayanagar Empire, the Pradhani or Mahapradhani was the designation for important administrative officers of state, who also served as the ministers of the king. The Pradhani generally bore the title Dandandyaka was thus an administrative officer in charge of the general administration of the empire. The Pradhani seems to be the fore-runner of the Maratha Peshwa. About Saluva Timma, the Mahapradhani of Krishna Deva Raya, Paes writes, “He commands the whole household and to him all the greatest lords act as to the king. And Nuniz observes that Saluva Timma was the principal person in the kingdom.”[27] The Mahapradhanis were assisted by an Upapradhani in the administration of the empire. In Vijayanagara, the designation for the Senapati of ancient India was called Dalaadhikari or Dannayaka who at times also referred to as Saravasainyadhipati or Sarvasainyadhikari (Commander-in-Chief of all the forces). While the Mantriparisad had a President known as Sabhanayaka who preside over its deliberations. Possibly Mahapradhani was the President of the Council of Ministers. The chief priest Raja-Guru occupied an important standing in Vijayanagar court. [28]

Administrative Officials or Secretariat

A vast empire like that of Vijayanagar could not have been ruled simply by a king assisted by his Council of Ministers. The administration of the empire must have been attended by an efficient secretariat staffs. The high officials of the secretariat were divided into various departments, each in charge of a branch of the administration. The important officials mentioned the epigraphs and literatures of the Vijayanagara Empire are as follows:

  1. Rayasam: His Department was a secretariat attached to the person of the king. Rayasam belongs to the profession of writing who despatch the king’s orders to governors and other state officers.
  2. Karanikkam: He was accountant. All the departments during the Vijayanagar period had this official in its staffs.
  3. Sarvanayaka: Also called Maneyapradhana was the officers of the royal household. His duties were to look at the needs king’s household. He had a large number of servants under him. Among them were the adappam, or hadapa (betel-bearers), bhata (bards), pancangadavaru (calendar makers), sasanacaryas (persons in charge of inscriptions, obviously for engraving) etc.
  4. Mugappavadai: He was in charge of carpets, screens, and other equipment used in the court on ceremonial occasions. He was something like the Master of the Court.
  5. Mudrakarta: He was the officer in charge of the royal seal and had a high dignitary in the state because of his closeness to the monarch.
  6. Ajnadharaka and Ajna-paripilaka: The officers executing the orders of the king.
  7. Vagal or Vasalkariyam: Officer of great dignity and importance. He appointed his men to guard the gates of the palace. Persons seeking audience with the king or entrance into the palace had to obtain his permission. [29]

Nayaka system

The Vijayanagar Kingdom followed the Nayaka system for officers appointed by the King. The Nayakas were a class of officers selected by the King and given land rights. The Nayakas had complete control over the land they owned, allowing them to lease a portion of it to others in exchange for revenue and other services to the higher authority. Nayakattanam was the name given to the area given to the Nayakas. In exchange for the King's land, the Nayakas were required to have men ready to be dispatched to combat and remit a share of their territory's revenue to their superior. [30]

According to epigraphical documents, there were three types of Nayakas[31] :

  1. Dan-nayakas (military official
  2. Durga-dannayakas (military officials in control of the fort), and
  3. Amara-nayakas (military official in charge of the palace).

Brahman commanders known as Durga-dannayakas were in control of strategic castles. The Nayakas maintained control over output in their Nayakattannam areas by encouraging settlers such as farmers, artisans, and other service groups, all of whom received tax breaks. Nayakas were required to appear at the royal headquarters. The agents or Karyakarta guarded their territory. The institution of Nayakattanam involved a land tenure system consisting of three tenurial rights[32] :

  1. Amaram: Nayaka gave the land to Amarnayaka, who was a Sub-nayaka. He was in charge of troop maintenance. The land was developed with the help of Kaniyalar, who employed Kudi, primary cultivators, and forced labour. He was required to offer the Nayaka a set percentage of his earnings.
  2. Bhadra: Bhandaravada was the name given to the territory under the direct control of the Nayaka. He engaged cultivators on the property known as Kaniyalarin in Tamil and Garuda Praje in Kannada.
  3. Manya: Tax-free land was provided to temples and other religious institutions. Manya was the name given to such donations.

Ayangar System or Local Government

The Ayangar system was used to organize the kingdom. Every village was treated as a separate entity under this arrangement. In each village, the government chose twelve bureaucrats called collectively Ayangar. Once assigned, the position of Ayangar became hereditary. The Ayangars had a great deal of control over their domains. They had the option to sell or mortgage their office. In addition, they were given tax-free lands, known as Manyas, to ensure their long-term survival. Headmen (Maniyam, Reddi, or Gauda), accountants (Karnam, Senabhova), and watchmen were among the Ayangars (Talaiyari). They possessed ownership of Manya lands. They had rights to tax-free plots of village land (Manya), from which they received a portion of the village's profits. They could, however, have paid a quit-rent (rent paid instead of income share received as rights over tax-free land). Other village servants, such as the potter, blacksmith, and carpenter, who performed necessary services for the community but did not undertake administrative tasks, were also awarded income shares. Umbili, Kodage, and Srotriya were the names given to these income shares. These agricultural production income shares were not taxed but instead acted as compensation for other services rendered. Suvarndaya, Kasu Kadamai, was the term for payments in kind, whereas Danyadaya, Kasu Kadamai, was for payments in money.

Revenue

Vijayanagara empire had an elaborate taxation structure. It may be convenient to classify the sources of the revenues of Vijayanagar under certain broad heads like land tax, tax on property, commercial taxes, profession taxes, taxes on industries, military contributions, social and communal taxes, judicial fines and such other income, and miscellaneous items of income.[33]

Judiciary

Disputes of the local nature were settled by the officials of the provinces with the co-operation of the local bodies. The law of the country was mainly based on Dharmashastra but traditional regulations and customs were also practised and strictly enforced. A person who find guilty inflicted with severe punishment. The penalties were chiefly of four kinds - fines, confiscation of property, ordeals and death. Oppression at the hands of officials in the matter of justice was not altogether absent, but the state successfully checks the unjust justice through the corporate bodies.[34]

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